Modern Western science is understood without the intervention of religion. Prior to the European renaissance, the Old & New Testaments were used to understand Earthly and Astronomical sciences; however, if scientists made claims that contradicted the Christian doctrine, they would be penalized and eventually sentenced to death (Mirza, 2000). As the Muslim empire began flourishing 1400 years ago, so did science and technology (Mirza, 2000). Although hard sciences were elemental in the intellectual growth of the flourishing Muslim empire, it is spiritual growth made it possible. The Shiite Islamic teachings of spiritual purification made it possible for many people to discover and understand that which initiated curiosity. What made these teachings and practices so unique were not abnormal; they were consistent with the human desire for balance, happiness and tranquility. However, it is odd that many of the characteristics of people who are defined as spiritually sound and pure are parallel with the characteristics of critical thinkers. There are measurable characteristics that determine a person’s critical thinking capacity (Page, 2007). As well, Kohlberg’s (2007) stages of moral development define the different levels people attain in their understanding of morality and justice (Page, 2007). In several reliable Shiite Islamic texts, the characteristics of those who are in the process of spiritual purification are parallel to those of critical thinkers. They also discuss morality and justice and what particular levels Muslims should attain; oddly, they are also parallel to Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. The purpose of this study is to better understand the parallels between modern Western discoveries on critical thinking and Shiite Islamic dimensions of spiritual purification. This will be conducted by breaking down critical thinking characteristics and one stage of moral development as discussed by Page (2007). After this, several exegeses of well known Shiite Muslim texts will be dissected in order to isolate the different meanings of each characteristic used to describe the purification process. The final stage of research will analyze the similarities between the two schools of thought and recommend further research.
Modern Critical Thinking Theories
As there are many theories that explain, describe, and measure critical thinking, several scientist simplifies it with logic. Baron (1991) explains that critical thinking dispositions are learned tendencies that make us act in particular ways (Page, 2007). It is the science of individual thinking; it can be taught and encouraged with dedication and motivation (Page, 2007).
Paul (1990) proposes a unique and practical definition of critical thinking,
“Critical thinking is disciplined, self-directed thinking which exemplifies the perfections of thinking appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thought. It comes in two forms. If disciplined to serve the interests of a particular individual or group, to the exclusion of other relevant persons and groups, it is sophistic or weak sense critical thinking. If disciplined to take into account the interests of diverse persons or groups, it is fair- minded or strong sense critical thinking” (Paul, 1990, p. 4).
In the classroom, critical thinking defines the difference between exceptional students and otherwise. A student’s acquisition of long term knowledge is dependant on their ability to think critically about any topic that is presented to them (Paul, 1990, p. 1). When any student is presented with a ritualistic education; one in which the journey to the answer is not stimulated in the higher order of thinking (Paul, 1990, p.1), the desire to further gain knowledge is suffocated.
As stated by Paul, there are two orders of thinking, the lower and higher. Unfortunately, many students associate their education in their lower order of thinking. In this realm, learning is completed by association or rote (Paul, 1990, p. 2). For example, when a topic has been defined as one which only requires repetitive memorization, the learning center of the brain is under-stimulated and fails to retain and understand the nature of the topic. The lower order of learning does not require the use of logic (Paul, 1990, p. 3), it is the aspect in which rehearsal and recognition are computed; thus, preventing the thinking capacity of the student from reaching higher potential. Logically, the higher order is where critical thinking and analysis would take place.
Values that liberate critical thinking ability
The beauty of critical thinking is the fact that its philosophy can applied universally. It may appear different when looked at from a cultural context; however, the under-lying values and principals are consistent throughout the human race. They will be explained in the later part of this research.
Critical thought is beyond the computational aspect of thinking, it is the ability to think deeply and reflectively about a particular topic. It is using the power of thought to gain knowledge, instead of utilizing only what is dictated and heard by socialization. Critical thinking is intellectual discipline; it can be used to transform an entire person by starting with revolutionizing one’s basic modes of thinking (Paul, 1990, p. 4). Although it is something that can be taught, the student must have the desire and motivation to acquire it (Page, 2007).
Critical thinking in fundamental Shiite Islamic doctrine
As in any other organized religion, Shiite Islam holds several texts to be sacred. In addition to the Quran, which is used and held as the highest text by all Muslims, the Shiites have several other books that act as manuals for a successful worldly life and afterlife. In this research, several books were reviewed to draw an accurate understanding of the two schools of thought.
Spiritual Purification has stereotypically been affiliated with organized religion. We as carnal humans have maintained distant from it because of the political connotation affiliated with organized religion. We find difficulty in attempting to understand purification, due to the fact that many people fail to understand its complexity.
In Amini’s (1935) book, Self Building, he opens up by discussing that the spiritual objective of any human is refinement, purification and training of the self. He references several important figures in Shiite Islam that explain that good morals and excellent conduct are the source of all excellence and victory (Amini, 1935). As this philosophy is consistent with almost every other way of life, its universality is logical; excellent conduct will have great impact. However, this is not a simple task; it starts with self-awareness and self- building (Amini, 1934). Throughout the later part of this research, these two concepts will be explained and linked to meta-cognition and critical thinking.
The Peak of Eloquence is a compilation of sermons, letters and sayings of one of the greatest Islamic thinkers, Ali Ibn Abi Talib. He was defined as the gate to the city of knowledge. He not only held this standard, but he was the first Leader of Shiite Muslims & the fourth Caliph of the entire Muslim population 1400 years go. He is highly regarded as one of the greatest people to have walked the earth. To some scholars, the Peak of Eloquence is free of heretical transmission and is therefore laden only with his authentic works. There are also scholars who argue that no scholastic text can be perfect except for the revealed Quran. The reason for mentioning this fact is to assure the reader that the sermon used has been verified as sound by scholars of the two abovementioned arguments. Of the many sermons and letters in this book, one was selected on the basis that it discussed the perfection of character (Sermon 193). In it, he gives a description of a person who is enlightened, purified in character, and God conscious. There are many characteristics, but several notables ones that are parallel to critical thought will be analyzed in the later part of this research.
The Psalms of those who Prostrate (1984) is a book of supplications written by Ali Ibn Abi Talib’s Grandson, Zain ul Abidin. He is the only male to survive Islam’s greatest tragedy, the massacre of Husayn Ibn Ali in the deserts of Karbala, Iraq (Aslan, 2006). This book has been defined as a heart rendering manifestation of humanity’s struggle with the self by defining their relationship with the Creator. Although these are supplications, they are evidently consistent with the deep internal struggle that humans endure in life’s journey. Out of the 54 supplications, the one in which God is implored for excellence in morals and good conduct was selected because characteristics are paired with their opposites; therefore, asking for the unlearning of one ideology and the learning of a new one. Afterwards, several characteristics that directly compare to the attributes of critical thinkers are listed; publishing goodness, bending the knee of humanity, calmness of disposition, forbearing rebuke, speaking the truth though difficult, and underrating personal good. The final plea is for the extraction of impure elements from the soul and preservation of whatever may enlighten it (Muhani, 1984).
Drawing the Similarities Between the Two Schools of Thought
Meta-cognition (self-awareness) is the key to critical thinking
In the journey towards becoming a critical thinker, meta-cognition is a step towards becoming intellectually independent. Although meta-cognition is an essential element in the critical thinking process, it should not be confused with it. If meta-cognition is the awareness of ones own thought process, than critical thinking would be the wiser and more intellectual version of it (Paul, 1990, p. 4). It is the stage before any degree of critical thought; therefore, before anyone has the capacity to critically understand the world, they must first be able to critically analyze themselves.
Amini explains the self as a single reality – one that possess various dimensions and facts within their single existence (Amini, 1934). There is a physical dimension, which occupies space and time; the animal dimension, which are carnal instincts; and lastly, the human dimension, which is wisdom, thinking, and thoughts (Amini, 1934). The objective of every person is to build their “human” dimension; without this, our success as individuals and as a collective group is lost.
In Shiite Islam, the entire objective of life is to purify and build the spiritual (human) self. It is the dimension that will define the survival and prevalence of humanity. Paul (1990) makes the very same argument about meta-cognition and critical thinking in his title,
“What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world” (Paul, 1990, p. 1).
The nature of Paul’s research is to develop a practical critical thinking criterion for teachers. There are several detailed lists that describe how to develop and condition certain characteristics; oddly, these are defined as virtues within the Shiite Islamic doctrine. A read though will instantly reveal the virtuosity of the characteristics because the people who do possess them are far and few between. The first list explains the perfections and imperfections of thought. They are fundamental disciplines that can be used for good or evil and with much practice and conditioning, grow to be an intellectual survival kit.
The critical thought characteristics are paired with the virtues of the purified; doing this shows the close relation of the two schools of thought: Clarity, logicalness and straightforward speech; precision, accuracy, specificity and attention to knowledge; relevance, consistency and steadfast in trivial times while upholding values; depth and a deep emotional desire to understand themselves; completeness and faith in conviction; fairness and humility; significance and adequacy for purpose (Paul, 1990, p. 4) (Radi, 2002).
Afterwards, Paul discusses interdependent and universal mental traits that are necessary when contemplating the self or any issue. Again, it is paired off with its sibling from the Peak of Eloquence. Intellectual humility and acknowledgement of ignorance; intellectual courage/integrity and endurance in (intellectual) hardship; intellectual perseverance and eagerness in seeking knowledge; faith in reason and determination along with leniency; intellectual sense of justice and satisfied only with the truth; intellectual empathy and understanding others by way of leniency and mercifulness (Paul, 1990, p. 6) (Radi, 2002).
The connection between critical thinking and spiritual purification is clear. Through sermons, supplications, and knowledge acquisition, Shiite Islam is whole-heartedly emphasizing its practitioners to be critical thinkers.
Nevertheless, both schools of thought offer many more characteristics with deep explanations; however, the nature of this research is to only draw a connection between the world of tested scientific fact and a spiritual understanding of the soul.
Kohlberg and the stages of moral development
As explained by Page (2007), Kohlberg theorizes and describes six stages of moral development. Although it starts at the onslaught of childhood, it continues throughout life and most people stop at the 3rd or 4th stage (Page, 2007). The sixth stage, known as universal ethical principals, is deserving of only a few people whose names have been etched in almost every mind. In this stage, Kohlberg claims that it is the application of transformational ethics. It is where a person understands the unbalanced and unfair dynamics that hurts society and works to deconstruct them and replace them with the universal principals of human rights (Page, 2007). In the sermon discussed earlier, Ali Ibn Abi Talib’s vivid account of spiritually purified people is closed off with,
“They transfuse knowledge with forbearance and speech with action” (Radi, 2002).
Thus, Kohlberg’s empirically proven understanding of highly evolved morals is consistent with people who are defined as spiritually purified. As this was the understanding of human beings 1400 years ago, it shows the consistency, validity, and universality of human moral evolution, regardless of generation.
Recommendations for further research
In the Canadian Context, this higher order of thinking would need to be experimented during adolescence. Topics and courses must be designed to teach them to individually utilize their mental capacities. Topics and course content must be enriching and controversial enough that it would naturally train the student to utilize their critical thinking ability (Paul, 1990, p. 4).
Although standardized testing can measure the algorithmic aspect of thinking (Page, 2007), it fails to measure the critical thinkers thought patterns which are learned over time.
One of the more difficult objectives of humanity is the breaking of bad habits. Whether they are manifested physically (smoking, alcoholism, and so on) or in poor thinking habits (dogmatism, prejudice, and so on), the unlearning process is wrenching. As this step in life is one of the greatest mysteries, we still hear of people who have overcome their bad habits. They all have unique stories, but I have not come across an empirically tested theory as to how unlearning occurs. It has been explained from a spiritual stand point in which Amini references several notable figures discussing the steps towards liberation from bad habits, but an empirically tested though process is difficult to find.
This area requires further research; if done so, it can help solve some of the greatest obstacles humans have come across. Because scientists shy away from using religious sources as assistance and inspiration for further research, it would be rather difficult to convince psychologists to use Shiite Islamic sources. The politics behind the religion and science debate stems from a feud between Darwinists and the Church. If this is overcome and behavioural sciences are tested from an Islamic perspective, than maybe, further progress can be made in understanding the science behind breaking bad habits.
Change is not easy.
